Opening scene of Hamlet Essay Example

Opening scene of Hamlet Paper The audience observes the opening scene of Hamlet, where they see a man standing guard (Francisco) on the platform of the castle known as Elsinorea, at the dead of night. In films, this place is often depicted, as very high up on the walls of the castle, over looking the dark sea. This would portray quite a somber and haunting theme. Throughout the opening scene, Shakespeare is constantly addressing his audience, in the form of questioning, through his characters. Even, the very first words, uttered in this scene is presented to the audience as a question whos there? This portrays the character (in this case Barnardo) as fearful, since he is in the presence of something unknown. This is Shakespeares attempt, to capture his audiences interest. He does this, by trying to get his audience to show empathy toward Barnardo, making them also worried and fearful of the unknown, which makes the audience want to find out the answer to this rhetorical question, that they have been presented with by Barnardo. Then the audience is allowed to find relief which they would have much thanks for (since they are now able to name this unknown presence as Francisco.) We will write a custom essay sample on Opening scene of Hamlet specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Opening scene of Hamlet specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Opening scene of Hamlet specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The audience is then easily silenced, when they are presented with another question Have you had quiet guard? making them worry yet again, if there could be another cause for concern. And also creating an atmosphere of tension and mystery, while at the same time leaving the audience in suspense. On the battlements of Elsinore. Tis now twelve and Barnardo has suggested to Francisco that he should Get himself to bed, since Tis bitter cold, and Francisco is sick at heart. Obviously the audience is given the impression, that this scene is set late a night. Also at that point in time, the battlements of Elsinore wasnt exactly the nicest place to be. There are two significant periods within this scene, which have a common factor the ghost (i. e. the theme of the super natural). Within the first period, Francisco speaking for the first time Nay, answer me. Stand and unfold yourself. The idea that it might be the ghost terrifies him, so in demanding to know who he is in the presence of allows him to put his worries at ease, once he as been answered. Followed by the second period, where Horatio sees the ghost for the first time Horatio. He is full of fear but at the same time wonder; at this point the audience would be sharing Horatios inquisitive, yet scared mannerism. The reader must remember that the Elizabethans were very superstitious and took matters of the super natural very seriously. Ghost were normal seen as representatives for good (as opposed to witches who were believed to be sent by the devil). Which is rather ironic, since Shakespeare does not establish whether or not the ghost is good or evil until later on in the play. This may have been done to get the audiences attention, making them want to know the purpose of this apparition (more that they would have if the answer had just been simple given to them). The dialogue in this scene is rather shot, suggesting tension. The two significant events contain the main sources of tension. The fact that there are long pauses and the language is not very descriptive also shows tension. Marcellus speaks of peace, break thee off, which suggests a rather rhythmic repetition of a beating drum (acting as an indication to war). When Horatio is first introduced to the audience only a piece of him is there. Physically he is there but mentally is somewhere else (i. e. half-asleep). Horatio is simply enduing Marcellus and Barnardo. He is quite the skeptic and believes tis only but our fantasy. So Horatio is rather a doubting Tom. The audience would be amused by the fact that his attitude is the complete opposite of the others. Also this is an interval between the two events, which just the presence of the super natural since texts becomes more descriptive and there are longer sentences. This would also imply that the was less tension thanks to Horatios disbelief and the greeting of friends. The ironically Horatios attitude drastically changes confronted the ghost, he can not believe that he had see it of mine own eyes. He also refers to the ghost as a thing simply because it is not quite explainable what this thing really is. The apparition has two nights been seen. By this point the audience would be very curious and would be very interested to see the out some of this scene. Before seeing the ghost Horatio believed that twill not appear, the audience wouldnt be able to comprehend whether the ghost was truth or illusion, heightening the suspense and making the audience eager to find out. Bernado sits down to explain what they had seen. The atmosphere would be calmer and the audience curious. When the ghost appeared, the audience would have been anxious and nervous. It is made clear to the audience that the apparition has taken on a figure like the king thats dead, giving the impression that the deceased king had unfinished business (i.e. the matter of revenge to deal with). After seeing the ghost, the audience would now believe what the soldiers had told Horatio. Horatios reaction proves that the ghost is not fantasy. The soldiers continue to talk about how the ghost looked like the king and how it was even dressed in his armor. This whole idea tis strange. This begins an air of mystery and worry to the scene. The fact that the ghost is wearing armor may be some sort of indication that it has come to wage war against Denmark. This bodes a strange eruption to our state. This introduces the time theme of corruption (i. e. think of evil erupting like a volcano. ) The audience at this time believed in the divine right of kings, seeing the Sovereign as central to the affairs of the nation. They would be wondering what had gone morally wrong for the king to return. The second part of the scene appeals more to the intellect that to the emotions. The audience would be keen and interested to be told why the soldiers were on duty constantly. They are told why Fortinbras is meaning to attack and filled in on historical facts, which will be important to their understanding of the play later. When Horatio begins to talk about what happened before Julius Caesar was killed. The audience would start to wonder whether the ghosts appearance in Denmark would have the same effect. * He states that all of these things were a bad omen suggesting that the ghosts appearance is a bad omen. The audience would therefore be interested to know if something like this happened in Denmark. At this point the tension increases and the audience would be on the edge of their seats watching the guards cross themselves for protection. As the ghost spreads its arms they would be straining to listen and hear what it had to say. Each time Horatio Asked it to speck what art thou, they would be willing it to reveal why it was there. As the cock crows action occurs as the soldiers try to strike the ghost, The audience would be full of astonishment by the fact that the ghost is really. Horatio then tries to restrain the ghost from leaving by striking it, still, it vanishes. Marcellus thinks that they have committed a grievous error in striking the ghost of the late king. The ghost had started like a guilty thing/Upon a fearful summons. Horatio recalls that traditionally the crowing of the cock was believed to awake the good of day and serve as a warning to all preternatural and erring spirits that the time has come to return to their confines. As dawn breaks, Horatio and the two officers decide to share the events of the night with prince hamlet, the late kings son. Now the audience would be thinking that the apparition was definitely evil. This scene ends on a hopeful note with the coming of the light the audience would have new hope that the ghost will speck to hamlet. They would be eager to find out his reactions. This scene ends on a note of suspense and mystery. This scene is full of devices to arouse the interest and silence a noisy audience. Tension, suspense and mystery are created through language and actions of the soldiers as they wait and confront the king s ghost on the castle battlements at Elsinore.

Definition and Examples of Reduplicatives in English

Definition and Examples of Reduplicatives in English A reduplicative is a word or lexeme (such as mama) that contains two identical or very similar parts. Words such as these are also called  tautonyms.  The morphological and phonological process of forming a compound word by repeating all or part of it is known as reduplication. The repeated element is called a reduplicant. David Crystal wrote in the second edition of The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language: Items with identical spoken constituents, such as  goody-goody  and  din-din, are rare. What is normal is for a single  vowel  or  consonant  to change between the first constituent and the second, such as  see-saw  and  walkie-talkie.Reduplicatives are used in a variety of ways. Some simply imitate sounds:  ding-dong, bow-wow. Some suggest alternative movements:  flip-flop, ping-pong. Some are disparaging:  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹dilly-dally, wishy-washy. And some intensify meaning:  teeny-weeny, tip-top. Reduplication is not a major means of creating lexemes in English, but it is perhaps the most unusual one.(Cambridge Univ. Press, 2003) Characteristics Reduplicatives can rhyme  but arent required to. They likely have a  figure of sound  represented in them, as alliteration (repetition of consonants) and assonance (repetition of vowel sounds) would be common in a word or phrase that doesnt change much among its parts, such as in this by Patrick B. Oliphant, Correct me if Im wrong: the gizmo is connected to the flingflang connected to the watzis, watzis connected to the doo-dad connected to the ding dong.† According to Gift of the Gob: Morsels of English Language History by Kate Burridge: The majority of...reduplicated forms involve a play on the rhyme of words. The result can be a combination of two existing words, like  flower-power  and  culture-vulture, but more usually one of the elements is meaningless, as in  superduper, or both, as in  namby-pamby. Now, it struck me the other day that a large number of these nonsense jingles begin with h. Think of  hoity-toity, higgledy-piggledy, hanky-panky, hokey-pokey, hob-nob, heebie-jeebies, hocus-pocus, hugger-mugger, hurly-burly, hodge-podge, hurdy-gurdy, hubbub, hullabaloo,  harumscarum, helter-skelter, hurry-scurry, hooley-dooley  and dont forget  Humpty Dumpty. And these are just a few!(HarperCollins Australia, 2011) Reduplicatives differ from  echo words in that there are fewer rules in forming reduplicatives. Borrowed Reduplicatives The history of reduplicatives in English starts in the Early Modern English (EMnE) era, which was about the end of the 15th century. In the third edition of A Biography of the English Language,  C.M. Millward and Mary Hayes noted:   Reduplicated words do not appear at all until the EMnE period. When they do appear, they are usually direct borrowings from some other language, such as Portuguese dodo (1628), Spanish grugru (1796) and motmot (1651), French haha ditch (1712), and Maori kaka (1774). Even the nursery words mama and papa were borrowed from French in the 17th century. So-so is probably the sole native formation from the EMnE period; it is first recorded in 1530.(Wadsworth, 2012) Morphological and Phonological Sharon Inkelas wrote in Studies on Reduplication that there are two separate methods, producing two different types or subsets of reduplication: phonological duplication and morphological reduplication. Below we list some criteria for determining when a copying effect is reduplication and when it is phonological duplication. (1) Phonological duplication serves a phonological purpose; morphological reduplication serves a morphological process (either by being a word-formation process itself or by enabling another word-formation process to take place...).(2) Phonological duplication involves a single phonological segment...; morphological reduplication involves an entire morphological constituent (affix, root, stem, word), potentially truncated to a prosodic constituent (mora, syllable, foot).(3) Phonological duplication involves, by definition, phonological identity, while morphological reduplication involves semantic, not necessarily phonological, identity.(4) Phonological duplication is local (a copied consonant is a copy of the closest consonant, for example), while morphological reduplication is not necessarily local.​  (Morphological Doubling Theory: Evidence for Morphological Doubling in Reduplication. ed. by Bernhard Hurch. Walter de Gruyter, 2005)

Expert Strategy Guide SAT Question of the Day

Expert Strategy Guide SAT Question of the Day SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips One great way to insert some extra SAT prep into your daily routine is to do a free SAT Question of the Day. College Board and other websites offer a daily question online and on mobile devices to keep you practicing whenever and wherever you want. In this article we’ll point you towards the best SAT Questions of the Day, both how to find them and how to use them effectively as you prep for the SAT. Where can you find SAT QOTD? Even though a few companies offer Question of the Day, College Board’s website is by far the best place for SAT QOTD. As the producers of the test, they release the highest quality questions. You can find their official practice question of the day online here: http://sat.org/qotd. In addition to the practice question, this site will tell you how many students answered it and what percentage answered it correctly. If you need a hint, it will give you one, as well. If you missed a question in the last thirty days, you can access that, too. Finally, College Board will give you an explanation of the correct answer. College Board has discontinued emailing practice questions, but you can pair up with a friend and email each other using their â€Å"Challenge a Friend† feature. Another site that offers free SAT questions of the day online is Number2.com (link to https://www.number2.com/exams/sat/daily/question/). This site offers a question a day, but does not have the other features (the answer hint, statistics, or share with a friend) that College Board offers. Do you tweet? College Board does too. You can follow @SATQuestion on Twitter. College Board links you back to their main site, along with some inspirational quotes or helpful tips about the test. How about QOTD on your phone? You can download College Board’s free apps to your phone, iPad, and Kindle. Here are their links for free apps: iPhones and iOS: https://itunes.apple.com/us/app/official-sat-question-day/id361264754?mt=8. Android and Google Play:https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.collegeboard.qotd Amazon:amazon.com/gp/mas/dl/android?p=org.collegeboard.qotd How do you use QOTD effectively and get the most from them? While answering QOTD questions is helpful, there are a few ways to get the most out of your time to improve your score the most. Make sure you understand your mistakes Did you answer it correctly? Read the explanation to make sure you understood the whole concept or skill being tested. The following example explains the answer to the math question above. Did you answer it incorrectly? Write that question down in your notebook. Figure out why you got it wrong and what concept or skill you need to work on to answer it correctly in the future. Figure out your weaknesses and drill them Whether the QOTD is math, reading, or writing, you should understand why you missed a question deeply. If you get stuck on a math question, seek out similar questions that test the same concept. If the vocabulary words are unfamiliar, look them up and shore up your vocabulary. Here’s an example of a Critical Reading sentence completion question from College Board. We'll hide the answer from you until you're ready. . . . .Did you choose C, â€Å"volatile...liable†? If you didn’t choose C, what was your mistake? Were you unfamiliar with the vocabulary words? Did you not think about the relationship between the words or correctly interpret to the context of the sentence? Through carefully analyzing your answers and working on your mistakes, you can turn your weaknesses into strengths. When a similar question comes up on the SAT, you can rest easy with the knowledge you’ve seen it dozens of times before. There are some limitations to SAT QOTD. First, because they are short questions, they usually don’t include passage-based reading or improving paragraph questions. Instead, they tend to be math multiple choice, sentence completions, improving sentences, and identifying sentence errors. Secondly, the difficulty levels of the questions are random. You can’t choose whether the practice questions of the day are easy, medium, or hard. However, you will get to answer a variety and see how you do on each questions of each difficulty level. This way you can figure out what skills and knowledge require further study and practice. Questions of the Day are a helpful tool and motivator, but they are not a replacement for more extensive study. To sum up†¦ Pros: -SAT Questions of the Day ensure that you’re preparing every day. -They’re easy to access online or on your cell phone or other devices. -They can be a launching point to help you identify your strengths and weaknesses. Cons: -There usually are no passage-based reading or improving paragraph questions. -The questions are random, so you can’t choose whether they’re easy, medium, or hard. SAT Questions of the Day are a free and easy way to get in some extra practice, learn new words, and most importantly, root out the areas you need to work on the most. Plus with the mobile apps, they’re conveniently right there in your pocket or bag. Just don’t get caught looking at your cell phone during class! What's Next? Now that you know how to prep using QOTD, there's a lot more you can learn about the SAT. What's a good SAT score for you and your goals? Read our step-by-step guide to figure our your own SAT target score. Planning to study with SAT books? Read our in-depth guide to the best SAT prep books. Want to improve your SAT score by 240+ points? Download our free strategy guide for the most important things you need to make big score improvements.

Analyzing the key elements of the nature-nurture controversy Essay

Analyzing the key elements of the nature-nurture controversy - Essay Example These factors involve various dimensions including physical environments such as prenatal nutrition, social environments such as the media among others. The nature versus nurture debate is an argument concerned with the innate qualities of an individual versus the personal experiences used to determine or create differences in individuals, in their behavioral and physical traits. Psychologically, nativism has the implication that some skills or abilities are usually hard wired in a person’s brain at the time of birth. On the other hand, Empiricism or behaviorism implies that theoretical knowledge that state categorically that an individual’s knowledge can only come through sensory experience. In this regard, certain scientific researchers have indicated that children become the product of the environments that they live in, or they acquire knowledge to do the things they do by nurturing. Others argue that, people behave in certain ways through hereditary and this consti tute to nature. Most theorists are also in an agreement that, nature and nurture are both intertwined, and they have an influence in most human aspects such as emotion, cognition among others. The questions behind the human development as well as the factors that influence it have taken central importance in psychology ever since the beginning of the discipline. The argument that human development comprises of these two factors has been argued for a long time by both philosophers and psychologists. Revolutionary ideas that came in the nineteenth century and their upheavals such as industrialization, Darwinism, and the abolition of slavery created an incitement to the conflicting interpretations that existed about the world and human life. In straightening out the effects of environment and genes to individual, behavioral geneticists usually perform the twin and adoption studies. Such studies aim at decomposing the variance that exists in a population into environmental and genetic c omponents. By the use of the comparison of the correlation in an exceptional dimension like the intelligence test (IQ) scores in identical twins and the fraternal twins, it possible for researchers to theoretically work out the comparative influences of both nature and nurture on this particular dimension. Sandra Scarr, for example, reported a correlation for the IQ test scores for identical twins of 0.86 and for the fraternal twins of 0.55 she indicated that, identical twins had scores that are close to one another as compared to those of the fraternal twins. This is an indication of hereditary. Contrary, where the IQ scores are 100 percent determined genetically, the identical twins’ correlation would be 1.00 according to this example, heredity seems to have a significant role. This does not mean that it is certainly the determinants in IQ tests. Researchers also do monitor concordance rates, in addition to the heritability estimates. Concordance rates are the ones at which the development of a characteristic occurs in both twins (Novel guide, 2011). In this study, the lack or availability of a specific mental condition is usually considered being an excellent example. Under situations that both twins showed some clinical depression in all pairs that were examined in the study, this would give a concordance rate of 100 percent in such a case. Contrary, if, in every pair, there was one individual who had the clinical depress

Human Resource Management 1 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Resource Management 1 - Research Paper Example In the following paragraph we are going to discuss about all the six features of a multicultural organization – Pluralism  refers to the mixed group of members in an organization and it also means taking proper measures to involve all the employees entirely that are different in terms of the central group dominating the organization. The concept of pluralism should take into account all the factors relating to race, religion, language, ethnicity, gender and culture which proves to be the basic component of a person’s identity and hence are sensitive facets of a person’s life. Pluralism is a part of the acculturation process. Acculturation helps to a great extent to introduce the concept of pluralism among the employees. Acculturation is the means by which the cultural disparity between the host/dominant cultural group and a minority cultural group are treated or resolved. There are a number of options for practicing acculturation within the organization, among which the most well-known being: 1. An unilateral procedure by which members of the minority culture take on the values and norms of the principal group within the workplace (this is called assimilation); 2. A course of action by which both majority and minority members of different cultural backgrounds accept some customs and rules of the other group (this is known as pluralism); 3. A state of affairs where there is modest scope of variation from each of the culturally different groups (this situation is referred to as cultural separatism). Pluralism further refers to the means of encouraging the minority culture groups are to enact the practices from the other cultural groups as well as from the dominant cultural group. They are as a result capable of retaining a sense of individuality within their minority cultural group. The concept of acculturation on the other hand is related to the cultural (customs and attitudes) characteristic of amalgamation of the diverse teams, as contra sting to simply make themselves physically available in the same setting (Buenker & Ratner, 2005, pp.18-20). Full structural integration:  An organization generally comprises of people from various backgrounds and different locations. When the firm has minority team members offering their service at every organizational level like responsibly handling all functions and enthusiastically taking part in all work teams, then it is said that the firm has attained full structural integration. Though, in order to obtain an appropriate knowledge of the structural integration framework it is significant to look further than the organization oriented summary data, and study the cultural blend in terms of function, individual work team and the level of work done. This involves dealing out with educational specializations and the variations in expertise and treating those evenly all through the organization. Full integration of informal networks:  integration in informal networks in a multi cultural organization is fostered through supervising and mentoring programs, particular social occasions and sustaining the cultural groups for the minorities. Such firm

Counselling and Psychotherapy Essay Example for Free

Counselling and Psychotherapy Essay Carl Ransom Rogers (1902 – 1987) was amongst the most influential figures of humanistic psychology, a school of psychotherapy that rejected medical and psychoanalytic models of treatment, and instead put forth a theory of personality and behaviour that presumed the source of psychological health ultimately resides in the individual person rather than in a programme based on the expert knowledge and authority of a psychiatric professional. Rogers’ specific form of humanistic psychology is broadly based on his view of human personality, which he believed naturally tended to develop in what he considered a healthy manner unless it is adversely influenced by life-experiences. From this theoretical basis, Rogers created a form of therapy that he called ‘client-centred’, (or person-centred) as opposed to forms of treatment that are directed by the expertise of the therapist. In the field of Counselling and Psychotherapy there are many differing theories which are used to help those who seek counselling, including client-centred therapy. In many parts of the world client-centred therapy is seen as a family of therapies, including Experiential Psychotherapy and Focusing. Closely associated with client-centred therapy are existential therapy and various integrative approaches. Since Carl Rogers’ death, there has been much debate regarding what can and cannot rightly claim to be called ‘client-centred therapy.’ Proponents of the differing ‘Tribes’ argue for their schools of thought. (Warner 2006). At the heart of all the differing thoughts and modes of delivery are the six conditions for therapeutic change which Rogers described as being needed before a client could move towards the changes that they wanted to make in their lives. Carl Rogers, along with Abraham Maslow, was the founder of the humanist approach to clinical psychology. Maslow was known as the ‘Third Force in Psychology’ but is mainly known for his thoughts on self- actualization. Prior to Maslow it was thought that human behaviour was just a set of behaviours to satiate the drive for deficits. For example the ‘lack of nutrients feel hungry seek food and eat’ model. Maslow proposed a wide range of human needs in a dynamic and changing system, where needs at higher levels would only be addressed when needs at lower levels had been satisfied (see Fig 1): Rogers person-centred theory emphasised the concept of ‘self-actualization’ which implies that there is an internal, biological force to develop ones capacities and talents to the fullest. The human organism’s central motivation is to learn and to grow. Growth occurs when individuals confront problems, strive to master them and, through experience, endeavour to develop new aspects of their skills, capacities, and views about life, and move forward towards the goal of self-actualization. By way of example, Rogers (1980) often illustrated the concept with reference to organisms in the natural world. He wrote about a potato in the root cellar of his boyhood home: â€Å"The actualizing tendency can, of course, be thwarted or warped, but it cannot be destroyed without destroying the organism. I remember that in my boyhood home, the bin in which we stored our winter’s supply of potatoes was in the basement, several feet below a small window. The conditions were unfavourable, but the potatoes would begin to sprout pale white sprouts, so unlike the healthy green shoots they sent up when planted in the soil in the spring. But these sad, spindly sprouts would grow two or three feet in length as they reached toward the distant light of the window. The sprouts were, in their bizarre, futile growth, a sort of desperate expression of the directional tendency I have been describing. They would never become plants, never mature, never fulfill their real potential. But under the most adverse circumstances, they were striving to become. Life would not give up, even if it could not flourish.† So it can be seen that Rogers was saying that this effective and strong constructive tendency is the underlying basis of the client-centred approach. Rogers groundbreaking understanding was that for a person to be truly helped, the important healing factor is the relationship itself. His view of human behaviour is that it is exquisitely rational Rogers (1961). Furthermore, in his opinion: The core of mans nature is essentially positive Rogers (1961), and he is a trustworthy organism Rogers (1977). Rogers focused on ways in which the therapist could promote certain core conditions between him/herself and the client. Central to his theory was that the actualizing tendency was a natural process, yet in order for each human organism to do so it required the nurturing of a caregiver. Rogers understood that inherently people need people, and that we are fundamentally dependent on others for our being. Many critics of the theory have misunderstood Roger’s concepts and commented that this is outmoded today, and, according to Bohart (2007) the critics were saying that it â€Å"glorifies the individual at the expense of others†. Wilkins (2003) argued that Rogers’ concept of self-actualization is culturally biased, reflecting a Western cultural emphasis on the separate, autonomous individualistic self. However, Bohart states that Rogers’ concept of self as culture-specific is compatible with cultures which view the self in relational rather than individualistic terms, even cultures that have no concept of self. Self-actualization means enhancing or actualizing the self as the self is defined for that person and culture. Rogers did believe that the tendency of actualization of a person in therapy was to always go in a positive pro-social direction, but critics state that it may lead to self-centred, narcissistic behaviour (Bozarth and Brodley, 1991). Rogers recognised that environmental and social factors could inhibit or distort the process of actualization so that a negative rather than positive outcome may occur, but also that the fully functioning person is ‘soundly and realistically social’ (Rogers 1961). Rogers postulated that therapeutic movement will only occur if, and only if, the six conditions for therapeutic change were in place between the therapist and the client. 1. The first condition of client-centred therapy is that therapist and client should be in psychological contact. The first condition specifies that a minimum relationship must exist. Rogers (1957) stated: â€Å"I am hypothesizing that significant positive personality change does not occur except in a relationship†. (Sanders 2006) â€Å"The relationship is not seen as a third object in the room with the counsellor and the client, but is the client and the counsellor. They bring themselves into the room, and in doing so a unique and ever-changing relationship is the result.† Research into contact between animals and people who live in social groups has shown that in order to grow and become confident then it must be in a psychologically interactive way. Those who were deprived of such conditions, like the children in the orphanages of Romania and the monkeys in Harlow’s experiments, grew up with permanent behavioural and emotional problems. (Harlow 1959, Carlson 1999, Bowlby, 1953, Warner 2002). Rogers thought that psychological contact was an all-or-nothing, one-off event, but others like Rose Cameron (2003) and Whelton and Greenberg (2002) see psychological contact as a variable and dynamic quality in relationships, and Margaret Warner (2002:79) says that the â€Å"contact can be viewed as a continuum†. In my opinion, despite the differing views of the various ‘Tribes’, the one over-riding view is that psychological contact is essential if the therapeutic process is going to work. It can simply be the mere recognition of the other person in the room, or a deeply-shared experience between the therapist and the client. 2. Client incongruence, a state of being vulnerable and anxious, is presented as the second of the six conditions which Rogers defined as a ‘discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self-picture of the individual’s experience insofar as it represents that experience’ (Rogers 1957), and which he saw as being necessary for therapy to be successful. Pearson (1974) thought that this condition had created some confusion, since the relationship between incongruence and felt anxiety or vulnerability is complex. All people are incongruent to some degree all of the time (since human beings can never fully symbolize their experience), and some sorts of incongruence may actually lower anxiety. Rogers’ concept of incongruence was simply saying that clients sense that they have underlying issues that have distorted their sense of equilibrium and therefore are motivated to seek counselling. I believe that this second condition affects how clients will respond to counselling because the change that needs to happen has to come from within the client and cannot happen against their will. For example, if someone is referred by a doctor, or school, or made to attend counselling with a spouse or parent, then the client will be in a state of incongruence and the first condition will not take place, without which there is no therapeutic relationship. 3. The third core condition is that the second person, the therapist, is congruent in the relationship. By congruent Rogers understood it to be real, genuine and transparent. As early as 1946 he wrote about the fact that the therapist should have a â€Å"genuine interest in the client†. Rogers makes it very clear in a video on the internet where he is talking about what it means to be congruent when he says: â€Å"Can I be real in the relationship; this has come to have an increasing amount of importance to me over the years. I feel that genuineness is another way of describing the quality I would like to have. I like the term congruence, by which I mean that what I am experiencing inside is present in my awareness and comes out though my communication. In a sense when I have this quality I am all in one piece in the relationship. There is another word that describes it for me; I feel that in the relationship I would like to have transparency. I would be quite willing for my client to see all the way through me and that there would be nothing hidden, and when I’m real in this fashion that I’m trying to describe, I know that my own feelings will often bubble up into awareness and will be expressed, but be expressed in ways that won’t impose themselves on my client.† (You Tube 2010). Despite Rogers’ insistence that being congruent with clients is of paramount importance, a number of studies over the years have shown that no significant relationship exists between levels of congruence and outcomes in the therapeutic relationship (Klein et al 2002, Orlinsky et al 2004, Burckell and Goldried 2006, Feifel and Eells, 1963). In contrast Cooper (2008) has suggested that this may be because it is a ‘high frequency’ event in therapy and therefore the correlation between genuineness and outcome are not truly recognised†. Without an empathetic response from the therapist I believe that the client would not feel valued or understood and the therapeutic relationship would break down. 4. In the development of self-concept Rogers also stated that the fourth condition unconditional positive regard the complete acceptance and support for a person no matter what they say or do is necessary for self-actualization. By showing unconditional positive regard, or prizing, clients are said to feel valued and so accepted and take responsibility for themselves (Rogers 1957:98). Conversely, I believe self-actualization is thwarted by conditional positive regard when acceptance is dependent on the positive or negative evaluation of a persons actions. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard, Rogers felt, only feel worthy if they match conditions laid down by others – conditions of worth which, in turn, can lead to shaping themselves determined not by their organismic valuing or actualizing tendency, but by a society that may or may not truly have their best interests at heart. 5. The fifth core concept states that the counsellor should experience an empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference. Each of us perceives and responds to our environments as a unified and organised whole, and each forms their unique frame of reference. Our understanding of the world is shaped through our experiences, and each time these are interpreted on the basis of our personal value system. In order for a therapist to understand a clients behaviour it should be from the internal frame of reference of the client. Empathy is not just listening but trying to feel the experiences and feelings that the other person has at that moment in time. It involves stepping into their shoes and laying aside one’s own perceptions, values, perspectives and meanings as far as possible. If the therapist attempts to understand the client on the basis of his/her own personal experiences, this would be an external frame of reference. When the therapist remains within the clients frame of reference, which is his/her own understanding of the world, it enhances empathy and promotes unconditional positive regard. Holding an external frame of reference might convey to the client that the therapist has their own agenda or is criticising the client. The question is, would the therapeutic process take place if the counsellor did not enter the client’s world so personally? From the large number of studies that have been carried out in an attempt to measure client’s reaction to the therapist’s empathy, the evidence shows it to be a ‘demonstrably effective element of the therapeutic relationship’ (Steering Committee, 2002). 6. The sixth and final condition client perception is as important as all the others, and is complementary to the idea that the first condition psychological contact is continued. Rogers (1959:213) wrote: ‘that the client perceives, at least to a minimal degree, conditions 4 and 5 the unconditional positive regard of the therapist for the client and the empathetic understanding of the therapist’. To some degree client perception has been ignored over the years. Tudor in 2000 referred to it as â€Å"the lost condition†. Sanders (2004) states that â€Å"Carl Rogers made it clear that the client was the centre of the therapeutic process, and furthermore it was the client who had the final say as to whether the ‘therapist-provided conditions’ were actually provided (as opposed to being assumed by the therapist)†. Dagmar Pescitelli (1996) argues that the theory of client-centred therapy may not be effective for severe psychopathologies such as schizophrenia (deemed to have a strong biological component) or other disorders such as phobias, obsessive-compulsive disorder, or even severe depression (currently effectively treated with drugs and cognitive behavioural therapy, or CBT). Pescitelli (1996) cites one meta-analysis of psychotherapy effectiveness that looked at 400 studies, and person-centred therapy was found least effective. In fact, it was no more effective than the placebo condition (Glass 1983; cited in Krebs Blackman, 1988). In contrast, meta-analyses of client-centred therapy as a whole support the theory that it is an efficacious and effective form of therapy, no matter what ‘Tribe’. It is similar to other orientations such as CBT and psychodynamic therapy, with evidence indicating that all schools may be efficacious for clients with depressive, traumatic, schizophrenic and health related problems, but there is less evidence on the impact of anxiety disorders (Elliott, Greenberg et al., 2004).

circumstances in make lemonade Essay -- essays research papers

Circumstances   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Circumstances; they rule our lives. One has if not no control, then VERY little control, over their actions when they are placed in harsh circumstances. It is very difficult to break through your surroundings, to beat everyone around you.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There is a quote â€Å"Circumstances rule men and not circumstances.† The idea of this quote, that one doesn’t have control over their turnout when they are placed in harsh circumstances, shows up in other places as well. There is another quote which is similar to this one. The quote is â€Å"Circumstances define us; they force us on one road or another then they punish us for it†. â€Å"Circumstances define us†¦Ã¢â‚¬  we are only who the people around us make us out to be. We take after our surroundings. It is hard to stay away from bad things, if all that surrounding us is bad. It is difficult to resist peer pressure. In the novel Make Lemonade, by Virginia Ewer Wolf, LaVaughn wants out. She wants to get away from all of the violence, all the drugs. She wants to get out of where she lives, which is very similar to the projects, some neighborhoods near her ARE the projects, and to go to college. She wants to escape from all of the peer pressure. She understands that she is not capable of becoming the type of woman she wants to be if she never experiencing life outside of her circumstances, life outside of drugs, violence and other things of the sort. Her surroundings, the circumstance...